Крылова упражнения по грамматике. В. Каушанская - Сборник упражнений по грамматике английского языка. Тренировочные упражнения по курсу грамматики современного английского языка
Читайте также
И. П. Крылова Е. М. Гордон
Грамматика
УДК 802.0(075.8)
ББК 81.2 Англ-2
Крылова И. П., Гордон Е. М.
К85 Грамматика современного английского языка: Учебник для ин-тов и фак. иностр. яз. - 9-е изд. - М.: Книжный дом «Университет»: Высшая школа, 2003. - 448 с. - На англ. яз.
ISBN 5-8013-0168-2 (Книжный дом «Университет»)
ISBN 5-06-004669-9 (Высшая школа)
Учебник предназначен для студентов тех институтов и факультетов иностранных языков, в которых курс практической грамматики читается на английском языке. Учебник содержит развернутое описание частей речи, краткие сведения о структуре предложения. Последовательно проводится стиллистическая дифференциация грамматических явлений.
Тщательный подбор иллюстративных примеров, которые содержат общеупотребительную лексику, но вместе с тем являются образцами хорошего литературного языка, обеспечивают повышение общего уровня владения языком.
УДК 802.0(075.8)
ББК 81.2 Англ-2
ISBN 5-8013-0168-2
(Книжный дом «Университет»)
ISBN 5-06-004669-9
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
"A Grammar of Present-Day English" - учебник, предназначенный для студентов институтов иностранных языков, а также факультетов иностранных языков педагогических институтов и филологических факультетов университетов. Это означает, что учебник рассчитан на студентов, овладевших грамматическим материалом, предусмотренным программой средней школы, т. е. знакомых с основными понятиями морфологии и синтаксиса. Учебник представляет собой практический курс грамматики английского языка. Практическая направленность учебника определяет принципы, положенные в его основу:
2. В учебнике описываются грамматические нормы английского языка, иными словами, объясняются типичные явления, которые и должны усваиваться студентами. В ряде случаев упоминаются также и отклонения от норм, если они необходимы студентам для правильного понимания читаемой литературы, но при этом всегда делается специальная оговорка. Редкие отклонения от норм вообще не включены в учебник.
4. Один из ведущих принципов, положенных в основу учебника, заключается в том, что студенты должны изучать хорошие образцы английского языка. Это относится как к формулированию правил, так
и к примерам, которые их иллюстрируют. Поэтому особое внимание уделялось подбору иллюстративного материала. Авторы стремились к тому, чтобы примеры содержали употребительную лексику и одновременно оставались бы хорошими образцами английского языка и чтобы учебник, таким образом, помогал студентам совершенствовать их зна - ния. Следует заметить, что количество примеров варьируется в учебнике в зависимости от употребительности того или иного грамматического явления и от объема раздела, который он иллюстрирует.
Кроме того, в учебник включены наиболее употребительные устой-
чивые сочетания (set phrases) и готовые фразы (stereotyped phrases),
возникшие на основе описанных грамматических моделей.
5. В учебнике проводится стилистическая дифференциация грамматических явлений, в частности особая оговорка делается в отноше - нии явлений, типичных только для книжной речи или носящих сугубо разговорный характер. Грамматические модели, которые в стилистическом отношении являются нейтральными, в специальных пояснениях, разумеется, не нуждаются.
6. В учебнике не проводится систематического сопоставления грамматических явлений английского языка с соответствующими яв - лениями в русском языке. Авторы, однако, прибегают к сравнениям с русским языком там, где это необходимо для понимания того или иного явления в английском языке.
Переводы на русский язык отдельных предложений, оборотов, терминов даются лишь там, где возникает опасение, что английский материал будет труден для понимания.
В учебнике отражены следующие признаки частей речи: 1) их семантика, 2) грамматические категории (для изменяемых частей речи),
3) их функции в предложении. Эти критерии, служащие для выделения частей речи в языке, положены в основу описания каждой отдельной части речи, и этот принцип проводится в учебнике систематиче - ски.
Хотя словообразование и сочетаемость с другими частями речи также являются существенными критериями выделения частей речи в языке, авторы не нашли нужным включать эти разделы в учебник. В институтах и на факультетах иностранных языков словообразование обычно входит в курс лексикологии, и включение его в грамматику создало бы ненужное дублирование курсов.
Что касается сочетаемости частей речи, то она фактически отражена в учебнике полностью при описании их синтаксических функций в предложении, и для практического овладения материалом выделение
ее в особый раздел представляется излишним.
Согласно общепризнанной точке зрения, важнейшей частью речи является глагол, который представляет собой ядро предложения. В практическом плане именно употребление глагольных форм представляет для изучающих английский язык наибольшие трудности. Поэтому глаголу в учебнике уделяется самое значительное место, и именно с глагола начинается рассмотрение всех частей речи.
Другим чрезвычайно важным в практическом отношении разделом грамматики является употребление артиклей. Этой теме в учебнике также отводится значительное место.
Стремясь к тому, чтобы учебник максимально способствовал именно практическому овладению грамматикой, авторы по-новому освещают некоторые грамматические явления или вносят дополнения и уточнения к традиционным объяснениям.
Это относится, в первую очередь, к разделам, посвященным глаголу. В учебнике вводится понятие структурной и лексической обусловленности употребления некоторых глагольных форм (см. "Verbs", §8), и преподавателям следует уделять этому вопросу особое внимание. Важную роль в учебнике играет выделение структурных моделей, типичных для употребления некоторых глагольных форм. По-новому освещается употребление формы Present Perfect и форм, служащих для отнесения действия к будущему. Введены дополнительные объяснения к употреблению форм Past Continuous, Past Perfect, Present Perfect Continuous и Past Perfect Continuous, а также к правилам согласования времен и употребления страдательного залога. По возможности просто, без излишней терминологической перегруженности, трактуются формы выражения нереальности, Они тесно связаны с употреблением модальных глаголов, объяснение которых предшествует описанию форм нереальности. Изменения внесены также в описание неличных форм глагола: их специфика выявляется лишь при сопоставлении с предикативными формами, и этому вопросу уделяется много внимания. Детально описывается значение простой формы, объясняются причины относительно редкого употребления аналитических форм. Внесены изменения и в описание функций неличных форм глагола в предложении. Наиболее существенное изменение касается герундия и причастия I, которые по традиции обычно рассматриваются как две различные формы, хотя многие грамматисты указывают, что они фактически не разграничимы. В предлагаемом учебнике они трактуются, вслед за некоторыми лингвистами, как единая форма - the ing-form, способная выполнять в предложении, подобно инфинитиву, самые разнообразные функции. Для практического овладения материалом такая интерпретация, как показывает опыт, оказывается более эффективной. Авторы рекомендуют изучать употребление инфинитива и инговой формы параллельно по функциям. Например, изучая инфинитив в функции подлежащего, целесообразно одновременно читать материал об инговой форме в той же функции, а также параграфы, в которых эти две функции сравниваются (§§ 181, 209 и 235). Затем следует переходить к другой функции. На этой сравнительной основе построены упражнения в «Сборнике упражнений по грамматике английского языка» И. П. Крыловой. Вопрос раз-
граничения герундия и причастия I представляет интерес скорее для изучающих курс теоретической грамматики английского языка.
По-новому освещается в учебнике также употребление артиклей. Раздел «Краткие сведения о структуре предложения» не претендует
на полное описание синтаксической структуры английского языка, а является скорее справочным материалом, которым следует пользо - ваться в том случае, если, работая над основными главами, студенты сталкиваются с трудностями в определении синтаксических функций тех или иных классов слов. Кроме того, в учебнике используются не совсем традиционные названия некоторых синтаксических функций, объяснение которым также можно найти в этом разделе.
В учебнике имеется приложение, которое содержит список неправильных глаголов и предметный указатель.
PARTS OF SPEECH IN ENGLISH
The words of every language fall into classes which are called parts of speech. Each part of speech has characteristics of its own. Parts of speech differ from each other in meaning, form and function.
Different parts of speech have different lexical meanings. For example, verbs are words denoting processes (to work, to live); nouns are names of objects (table, boy); adjectives are words expressing characteristics (good, bad), etc.
Some parts of speech have different grammatical categories, e.g. verbs have the categories of mood, tense, aspect, phase, voice, person and number; nouns have the categories of number and case; adjectives have degrees of comparison, etc.
Other parts of speech are invariable, they have only one form. Here belong such parts of speech as prepositions and conjunctions.
Parts of speech also differ from each other in their syntactic functions. For example, verbs have the function of the predicate in the sentence, nouns are often used as the subject or the object of the sentence, adjectives serve as attributes or predicatives; adverbs are generally adverbial modifiers, etc.
These characteristic features will be described in detail when each part of speech is considered individually.
In addition, all words may be divided into two main groups: notional and structural.
Notional words have distinct lexical meanings and perform independent syntactic functions in the sentence: they serve either as primary or secondary parts of the sentence. To this group belong the following parts of speech: verbs, nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns and adverbs.
Structural words differ from notional words semantically: their lexical meaning is of a more general character than that of notional words (e.g. in, and, even). Moreover, they are sometimes altogether devoid of it (e.g. the articles the and a, the conjunction that, the preposition of, e t c .) . Structural words do not perform
any independent syntactic function in the sentence but serve either to express various relations between words in a sentence (e.g. the trees in the garden, Tom and Joe, etc.) or to specify the meaning of a word (e.g. the book, a book, etc.). The following parts of speech are to be treated as structural words: articles, prepositions and conjunctions.
The division of words into notional and structural is connected with certain difficulties. For example, verbs, which, on the whole, are to be treated as notional words, include certain words which serve as structural elements (e.g. modal verbs), some other verbs may function either as notional words or as structural words (e.g. to look is a notional verb in He looked at me and a structural word - a link-verb - in He looked tired; the verb to have is a notional verb in I have a car and a structural word - a modal verb - in I had to do it). Pronouns may be quoted as another example since, on the one hand, they have, like all notional words, independent syntactic functions in the sentence but, on the other hand, they are devoid of distinct lexical meaning.
§ 1. According to content, verbs can be described as words denoting actions, the term "actions" embracing the meaning of activity (e.g. to walk, to speak, to play, to study), process (e.g. to sleep, to wait, to live), state (e.g. to be, to like, to know), relation (e.g. to consist, to resemble, to lack) and the like.
According to form, verbs can be described as words that have certain grammatical features that are not shared by other parts of speech, e.g. they have the categories of tense, aspect, voice, etc.
According to function, verbs can be defined as words making up the predicate of the sentence.
§ 2. Verbs can be classified under different heads.
1) According to their meaning verbs can be divided into two groups - terminative and durative verbs.
Terminative verbs imply a limit beyond which the action can - not continue. To put it differently, they have a final aim in view, e.g. to open, to close, to bring, to recognize, to refuse, to break.
With the verb to open, for example, that means that after opening the door it is impossible to go on with the action as the door is al - ready open.
Durative verbs do not imply any such limit, and the action can go on indefinitely, e.g. to carry, to live, to speak, to know, to sit, to play.
But as most verbs in English are polysemantic they may be terminative in one meaning and durative in another. For example, to see may have the terminative meaning "увидеть" and the durative meaning "видеть"; to know may denote "знать" and "узнатьThe meaning of the verb becomes clear from the context. Compare: I saw him at once and I saw his face quite clearly. As will be seen, the distinction between terminative and durative verbs is of great importance as it affects the use of certain tense -aspect-phase forms.
2) According to their relation to the continuous form, English verbs fall into two groups: dynamic verbs, i.e. verbs which admit of the continuous form (a) and stative verbs, i.e. verbs which do not admit of the continuous form (b).
e.g. a) We were eating dinner when he called.
You"ll find Mother in the kitchen. She is making a cake, b) I understand what you mean.
I don"t see him in the crowd.
The distinction between dynamic, and stative verbs is funda - mental in English grammar, and it is also reflected in a number of other ways than in the continuous form.
It is normal for verbs to be dynamic, and even the minority that are almost always stative can be given a dynamic use on occasion.
The following is the list of most commonly used stative verbs:
a) verbs denoting physical perceptions: to hear, to notice, to see;
b) verbs denoting emotions: to adore, to care for, to detest, to dislike, to hate, to like, to love, to respect;
c) verbs denoting wish: to desire, to want, to wish;
d) verbs denoting mental processes: to admire (= to be of high opinion), to appreciate, to assume, to believe (= to consider), to con sider (= to regard), to doubt, to expect (= to suppose), to feel (= to consider), to imagine, to know, to mind (= to object), to perceive, to presume, to recall, to recognize, to recollect, to regard, to remember, to suppose, to think (= to consider), to trust, to understand;
e) relational verbs: to apply, to be, to belong, to concern, to consist, to contain, to depend, to deserve, to differ, to equal, to fit, to have, to hold (= to contain), to include, to involve, to lack, to matter, to need, to owe, to own, to possess, to remain, to require, to resemble, to result, to signify, to suffice;
f) some other verbs: to agree, to allow, to appear (= to seem),
to astonish, to claim, to consent, to displease, to envy, to fail to do, to feel (intr) l , to find, to forbid, to forgive, to intend, to interest, to keep doing, to manage to do, to mean, to object, to please,
to prefer, to prevent, to puzzle, to realize, to refuse, to remind, to satisfy, to seem, to smell (intr), 1 to sound (intr), 1 to succeed, to suit, to surprise, to taste (intr), 1 to tend, to value.
1 As in: The surface feels rough. The song sounds nice. The soup tastes (smells) nice.
3) English verbs are also classified according to the type of object they take. Verbs that do not require any object are called intransitive.
e.g. We walked across the fields.
Nobody knew where the old man lived.
Verbs that require some kind of object to complete their meaning are called transitive. The objects transitive verbs take may be direct (a), indirect (b) or prepositional (c).
e.g. a) I swear I"m telling the truth.
b) His mother never gave him advice.
c) Now let"s talk of something sensible.
Polysemantic verbs may be transitive in one meaning and intransitive in another.
e.g. I didn"t know where to find him as he had changed his address. I was glad to see that he had not changed at all.
He ran uphill past a block of houses. She ran the shop quite competently.
§ 3. According to their meaning and function in the sentence English verbs are classified into notional and structural ones.
Notional verbs always have a lexical meaning of their own and can have an independent syntactic function in the sentence.
e.g. During the war he lived in London.
When a verb is used as a structural word, it may either pre - serve or lose its lexical meaning. But even if it has a lexical meaning of its own, the latter is of a specific character and the verb cannot have an independent syntactic function in the sentence - it is always closely connected with some other word. Here belong modal verbs and link-verbs.
A modal verb is always accompanied by an infinitive - together they form a modal predicate.
e.g. The party is at eight. You must dress suitably for it. I couldn"t do anything under the circumstances.
A link-verb is followed by a predicative; together they form a nominal predicate.
e.g. He was a middle-aged man.
It became very hot by noon.
The hotel remained empty all through the winter. The cottage seemed deserted.
Sometimes a verb is entirely devoid of lexical meaning and is then called an auxiliary verb. Combined with a notional verb it serves to build up analytical forms.
e.g. We had arranged to meet in the usual place. Do you know why he said that?
The young man was sitting at the table alone.
Polysemantic verbs may be notional as well as structural words.
e.g. He is married and has three children (a notional verb used in the meaning "to possess").
I had to reconsider my position (a structural word: a modal verb denoting obligation, part of a modal predicate).
"It has happened now," he said, "so there"s nothing to do"
(a structural word: an auxiliary verb which serves to build up an analytical form).
He looked at me, waiting for the next words (notional verb meaning "glanced").
He looked quite happy (a structural word: a link-verb meaning "seemed").
§ 4. English verbs are characterized by a great variety of forms which can be divided into two main groups according to the function they perform in the sentence: the finite forms and the non-fi- nite forms.
The finite forms have the function of the predicate in the sentence and may also be called the predicative forms.
The non-finite or non-predicative forms can have various other functions; they are used as the predicate of the sentence only by way of exception. These forms are often called the verbals (see "Verbs", §§ 163-254).
The finite forms of the verb have the following grammatical categories:
1) Person and Number. These categories of the verb serve to show the connection between the subject and the predicate of the
sentence - the subject agrees with the predicate in person and number. We find three persons (the first, the second, and the third) and two numbers (the singular and the plural) in finite verbs (see the formation of finite forms, "Verbs", §§ 9, 11, 15, 17, 22, 25, 29, 33, 38, 40, 43, 45).
2) Tense, Aspect and Phase (see "Verbs", § 7).
3) Voice (see "Verbs", §§ 61-63).
4) Mood (see "Verbs", §§ 122-125).
§ 5. The forms that serve to express the above mentioned grammatical categories may be built up in different ways.
We find three basic forms that serve as a foundation for building up all the other forms of the English verb. These forms are: 1) the plain verb stem which is also often referred to as the infinitive without the particle to, 2) the Past Indefinite, and 3) the participle.
According to the way of forming the Past Indefinite and the participle, all verbs can be divided into two classes: regular and irregular verbs.
With regular verbs, the Past Indefinite and the participle are formed by adding the suffix -ed. It is pronounced [d] after vowels and voiced consonants (e.g. played, answered, opened, closed), [t] after voiceless consonants (e.g. looked, passed), and after verbs ending in [t] or [d] (e.g. wanted, wasted, ended, landed).
1) Verbs ending in -y preceded by a consonant change the -y into -led (e.g. study - studied, envy - envied). But if the -y is preceded by a vowel, it remains unchanged (e.g. play - played, stay - stayed).
2) A final consonant is doubled if it is preceded by a short stressed vowel or if a verb ends in a stressed -er (-ur) (e.g. stop - stopped, admit - admitted, occur - occurred, prefer - preferred). But if the preceding vowel is long or unstressed, the final consonant remains single (e.g. limit - limited, perform - performed, conquer - conquered, appear - appeared).
3) A final -l is always doubled in British English (e.g. travel - travelled, quarrel - quarrelled).
All other verbs should be regarded as irregular in modern English. They are a miscellaneous group comprising various patterns
(e.g. sing - sang - sung, write - wrote - written, send - sent - sent, teach - taught - taught, etc.)- Some verbs have a regular form by the side of an irregular one (e.g. learn - learnt
Learnt and also learn - learned - learned). A number of verbs remain unchanged (e.g. cut - cut - cut, hit - hit - hit). Two verbs take their forms from different roots and are called suppletive systems. They are the verbs to be and to go. (For a complete list of irregular verbs see Appendix.)
§ 6. The forms of the verb which are built up with the help of the above described basic forms may be of two different kinds - synthetic or analytical.
Synthetic forms are built up by a change in the word itself: by means of suffixes (e.g. I work, he works, we worked), by means of vowel change (e.g. I find, I found), and sometimes by combining both means (e.g. I think, I thought).
Analytical forms consist of two components, e.g. He has worked hard. The first component is an auxiliary verb which has no lexical meaning - it expresses only grammatical meaning. The second component is a notional verb which is the bearer of lexical meaning ("носитель лексического значения"). The auxiliary verb shows that has worked is the third person singular, the Indicative Mood, the Active Voice. But the specific meaning of this particu - lar form, that of the Present Perfect, results only from the combi - nation of both components.
In the analytical form was written (as in: The letter was written yesterday), written is the bearer of lexical meaning; was shows that we are dealing with the third person singular, the Indicative Mood, the Past Indefinite, But again the specific grammatical meaning of this particular form, that of the Passive Voice, is expressed by the whole combination of the auxiliary and the notional verb.
Thus an analytical form consists of two words - a structural word and a notional word - which form a very close, inseparable unit. It functions in English as the form of a single word by the side of synthetic forms (e.g. he works, he has worked, he worked, he was working, he had worked, etc.).
The auxiliary verb itself may be an analytical form (e.g. He has been working. He will be working. The letter has been written, etc.). Such forms may be called complex analytical forms.
FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB
Tense, Aspect and Phase
§ 7. Tense is the form of the verb which indicates the time of the action. The category of tense in English is made up by a set of forms opposed to each other in referring the event or state de - scribed to the present, past or future.
Aspect is the form of the verb which serves to express the manner in which the action is regarded. There are two opposing sets of aspect forms in English - the Continuous forms and the Non-Continuous (Indefinite) forms. The Non-Continuous (Indefinite) forms have a very broad meaning, they have no specialized aspect characteristics of their own and merely represent an action as occurring. Conversely, the Continuous forms have a clear -cut aspect characteristic, which is to represent an action in its tempo - rary development. The Continuous forms have a number of other concomitant meanings or overtones that go with the basic meaning of process and duration. They are incompletion, simultaneity, vividness of description, emotional colouring and emphasis.
Besides, there are the Perfect forms which are opposed to the Non-Perfect forms. The latter have no definite grammatical characteristics. The grammatical meaning of the Perfect forms is to express retrospectiveness, which consists of two elements - priority and relevance. In some grammars this category has been given the name phase.
The three grammatical categories of the English verb are so closely merged together that it is impossible to treat them sepa - rately.
We find the following finite forms in English: the Present In - definite, the Present Continuous, the Present Perfect, the Present Perfect Continuous, the Past Indefinite, the Past Continuous, the Past Perfect, the Past Perfect Continuous, the Future Indefinite, the Future Continuous, the Future Perfect, the Future Indefinite - in-the-Past, the Future Continuous-in-the-Past, and the Future Perfect-in-the-Past.
§ 8. 1) In discussing the use of English finite forms it is necessary to understand that in most cases the choice is free: the form is chosen in accordance with the meaning the speaker wishes to
convey and does not depend on the structure of the sentence, e.g.
He knows English. He knew English. He will know English.
In certain cases, however, the choice of the form is determined by the structure of the sentence, usually the kind of clause in which it is used. For example, the use of t he Present Indefinite with reference to the future in a clause of time or condition (a), or the use of a finite form under the rules of the sequence of tenses (b).
e.g. a) When you feel hungry, I"ll bring you some sandwiches. If I want anything I"ll call you up.
b) She knew that Henry would be waiting for her. I wondered if he had kept his promise.
In such cases we have the structurally dependent use of finite forms.
In still other cases the choice of the finite form in a sub - ordinate clause is determined not so much by the kind of clause as by the lexical character of the head-word, i.e. the word in the principal clause which the subordinate clause modifies or refers to. For example, in object clauses subordinated to the verbs to see to, to take care or to make sure the future forms are not used.
e.g. He"ll take care that she comes in time.
She saw to it that they had plenty of food in the house.
In such cases we have the lexically-dependent use of finite forms.
2) Closely connected with the above notion is the absolute and relative use of finite forms. The forms may refer an action direct - ly to the present, past or future time. We are dealing in this case with the absolute use of finite forms, which, as a rule, is structur - ally independent.
But in certain types of clauses the verb form of the sub - ordinate clause only shows whether the action of the clause is si - multaneous with that of the principal clause, precedes it or follows it. (These relations may be termed as simultaneity, priority and posteriority respectively.) In this case we are dealing with the relative use of finite forms. It is usually structurally dependent (see, for example, the rules of the sequence of tenses).
e.g. He discovered that his wife knew London far better than he did. He knew that she had read his thoughts.
He thought that he would hate the place.
3) Last but not least, students of English should differentiate between present-time contexts and past-time contexts.
In present-time contexts, i.e. in conversations, letters, newspaper and radio reports, lectures and scientific prose, the situation is viewed from the moment of speaking. (The moment of speaking is to be understood as present from the speaker"s point of view but not as the present moment.) Any finite form that is re quired by the sense can be used in present-time contexts. The only reservation should be made for the Past Perfect and the Past Perfect Continuous and all the Future-in-the-Past forms which are, in presenttime contexts, mainly found in reported speech or thought.
In past-time contexts, i.e. in narration, the situation is viewed from a past moment. Hence, the use of finite forms is restricted only to past forms including the Future-in-the-Past.
The Present Indefinite
§ 9. The Present Indefinite is formed from the plain stem of the verb. In the third person singular it has the suffix -s/-es which is pronounced after voiceless consonants (e.g. looks, puts), and after sibilants (e.g. closes, places, teaches, wishes, judges).
In writing the following spelling rules should be observed:
a) Verbs ending in -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -tch, x and -z take the suffix -es (e.g. passes, pushes, watches). The suffix -es is also added to verbs ending in о preceded by a consonant (e.g. goes).
b) Verbs ending in -y with a preceding consonant change the -y into -ies (e.g. study - studies, try - tries, fly - flies). But if the
У is preceded by a vowel, the suffix -s is added (e.g. play - plays, stay - stays).
The affirmative form of the Present Indefinite is a synthetic form (e.g. I work, he works, etc.). But the interrogative and negative forms are built up analytically, by means of the auxiliary verb do in the Present Indefinite and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to (e.g. Do you work? Does he work? I do not
work. He does not work, etc.). In spoken English the contracted negative forms don"t and doesn"t should be used.
The Present Indefinite may have a special affirmative form which is used for emphasis. This emphatic form is built up analytically, by means of the Present Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to do followed by the infinitive of the notional verb without the par - ticle to. The auxiliary verb is heavily stressed in this case (e.g. I "do insist on it. He "does insist on it).
§ 10. The Present Indefinite is used in the following cases:
1) When it serves to express recurrent (a) or permanent (b) ac - tions in the present.
a) We find recurrent actions with terminative verbs. They are, as a matter of fact, point (instantaneous) actions repeated a num - ber of times. This series of recurrent actions may include or ex - clude the actual moment of speaking.
This use of the Present Indefinite is often associated with such adverbial modifiers of frequency as often, seldom, sometimes, occasionally, always, never, ever, every year (week, month, day), usual - ly, once {twice, three times) a year, daily, on Sundays (Mondays, etc.) and the like. But it may also be found without any indica - tions of time.
e.g. He wakes up around six o"clock and has a cup of coffee. He doesn"t usually ring up early in the morning.
"Do you often come to these parties?" inquired Jordan of the girl beside her.
The charwoman comes in daily.
b) We find permanent actions with durative verbs. They generally indicate continuous, uninterrupted processes which naturally include the present moment. Such actions give a general character - istic to the person or thing denoted by the subject. Time indica - tions are not obligatory in this case.
e.g. Her son works near here and so, after her husband"s death, she came down to live here and he boards with her.
That old man gave me a surprise. He"s seventy-five, and he doesn"t walk, he runs.
I teach English and History at a college, and I live with my parents.
I hate authority. It spoils the relations between parent and child.
Like all young men, he sleeps like a log.
As is seen from the above examples, the difference between the two main uses of the Present Indefinite rests on the difference in the lexical character of the verb. In many cases, however, owing to the context or situation, the difference appears blurred and it becomes difficult to define the lexical character of the verb. In other words, we are dealing with marginal cases in this instance - a permanent characteristic is given through recurrent actions.
e.g. I always talk too much when I"m nervous.
I sometimes play the piano for five hours a day. He usually walks to the corner with Phil. Edith always gets away with things.
Note. The Present Indefinite is often said to express a general statement or a universal truth. In this case it also denotes either a recurrent action or a perma - nent process and thus it does not differ in principle from the two above described uses of the Present Indefinite.
e.g. Domestic animals return to their homes. Romance only dies with life.
Still waters run deep, (a proverb)
A mother"s love means devotion, unselfishness, sacrifice.
2) When it is used to express a succession of point actions taking place at the time of speaking. In this meaning it is used in stage directions or by radio and TV commentators in describing sports events, public functions, etc. That means that this use of the Present Indefinite is stylistically restricted.
e.g. a) In stage directions:
b) In comments (here on a TV film about Chi -Chi, the giant panda, who returns home after her stay in the Moscow Zoo):
"Chi-Chi is in the pen. She walks over to the travelling box. Chi-Chi climbs on the rock. The crowd moves closer to Chi-Chi."
Part I. ACCIDENCE
Exercise 1. State the morphological composition of the following nouns.
Snow, sandstone, impossibility, widower, opinion, exclamation, passer-by, misunderstanding, inactivity, snowball, kingdom, anticyclone, mother-of-pearl, immobility, might, warmth, succession, ex-president, nurse, misdeed, wisdom, blackbird, attention, policeman, merry-go-round, girlhood, usefulness, fortune, friendship, statesman, brother-in-law, population, fellow-boarder, smelling-salt.
Exercise 2. Point out the nouns and define the class each belongs to.
1. Don"t forget, Pettinger, Europe is still the heart of the world, and Germany the heart of Europe. (Heym) 2. Pursuing his inquiries, Clennam found that the Gowan family were a very distant ramification of the Barnacles... (Dickens) 3. His face was sick with pain and rage. (Maltz) 4. He drank coffee, letting the warmth go through his cold, tired body. (This is America) 5. But there is only one place I met with the brotherhood of man, and it was in the Communist Party. (This is America) 6. The mysteries of storm and the rain and tide were revealed. (Galsworthy) 7. Having set the tea, she stood by the table and said slowly: "Tea"s ready, Father. I"m going to London." (Galsworthy) 8. By this time, quite a small crowd had collected, and people were asking each other what was the matter. (Jerome i(. Jerome) 9. There were several small losses: a spoon used for the baby"s feeding, a pair of scissors. (Lessing) 10. He was professor of physics. (London) 11. A band of dark clouds lay across the sky, and underneath it was the last pale brilliance of the evening. (Murdoch) 12. "I have some luggage," he said, "at the Brumblehurst Station," and he asked her how he could have it. (Wells) 13. In the kitchen Bowen read the telegram aloud. (Amis) 14. The crowd laughed and moved, pushing every way and everybody. (This is America) 15. De Witt fished through his pockets, found his eyeglasses, carefully slipped them out of their case... (Heylri) 16. A stone caught her heel. (Maltz) 17. George suggested meat and fruit pies, cold meat, tomatoes, fruit and green stuff. (Jerome K. Jerome) 18. The silvercoloured carpet felt wonderfully soft beneath his feet, the furniture was of a golden wood. (Galsworthy) 19. The major seemed to be looking out at the sky... (Heytn) 20. Winslow spoke with his usual caustic courtesy. (Snow) 21. The bourgeoisie is cowardly. (London) 22. The moon was shining through the tree stems when they sax again side by side on the log seat. (Galsworthy) 23. "It"s not Sunday, tomorrow," said Karg. (Heytn) 24. He looked down at his audience. (Heyrri) 25. His hair was grey and he was short and fat. (Hemingway)
Exercise 3. Give the plural oi the following nouns.
Face, portfolio, swine, house, tomato, hearth, mother-in-law, basis, clergyman, ox, cry, key, fox, downfall, looker-on, rock, bush, enemy, leaf, roof, genius, hero, bunch, sheep, ship, criterion, youth, journey, penknife, man-of-war, loss, datum, goose, deer, pie, Englishwoman, wolf, mouse, formula, bath, volcano, possibility, forget-me-not, foot, handkerchief, thief, crisis, stepdaughter, birth, echo, finger-tip, court martial, joy, mischief-maker, extremity, spy, lie.
Exercise 4. Use the appropriate form of the verb.
1. "There - money in my pocket," 1 said to the porter, (is, are) (Hemingway) 2. I know my hair __ beautiful, everybody says so. (is, are) (Hardy) 3. The works __ his country, his home, his reason for being, (was, were) (Heym) 4. These white swine - not live, (does, do) (Sabatini) 5. Means __ easily found, (was, were) (Thackeray) 6....this watch __ a special favourite with Mr. Pickwick, having been carried about... for a greater number of years than we feel called upon to state, at present, (was, were) (Dickens) 7. "Good," I said. "No one shall tell me again that fish - no sense with them." (has, have) (Llewellyn) 8. The deer __ ravaging the man"s fields, (was, were) (Twain) 9. Money __ so scarce that it could fairly be said not to exist at all. (was, were) (Dreiser) 10. I was here before the gates __ opened, but I was afraid to come straight to you. (was, were) (Dickens) 11. The papers __ dull, the news _ local and stale, and the war news __ all old. (was, were) (Hemingway) 12. At Capracotta, he had told me, there __ trout in the stream below the town, (was, were) (Hemingway) 13. The sugartongs __ too wide for one of her hands, and she had to use both in wielding them, (was, were) (Ch. Bronte) 14. Her hair __ loose and half-falling, and she wore a nurse"s dress, (was, were) (Hemingway) 15. And the baggage __ apparatus and appliances, (contain, contains) (Wells) 16. The china __ good, of a delicate pattern, (was, were) (Dreiser) 17. The nurse"s wages.: __ good... (was, were) (Collins)
Exercise 5. Explain the use of the genitive case.
1. For four months, since in the canteen she saw Jon"s tired smile, he had been one long thought in her mind. (Galsworthy) 2. Agnes was at her wit"s-end. (Lindsay) 3. Since his illness, however, he had reluctantly abandoned this attempt to get twentyfour hours’ work out of each day. (Murdoch) 4....the Radicals" real supporters were the urban classes. (Galsworthy) 5. To Elizabeth it seemed that the lines with which fear had falsely aged his face were smoothed away, and it was a boy"s face which watched her with a boy"s enthusiasm. (Greene) 6. For his honor"s sake Torn has got to commit suicide. (Saroyan) 7. They were to leave the house without an instant"s delay and go at once to the river"s edge and go aboard a steamer that would be waiting there for them. (Buck) 8. And he lifted his strange lowering eyes to Derek"s. (Galsworthy) 9. I was encouraged when, after Roger had proposed the guest of honor"s health, Lufkin got up to reply. (Snow) 10. "Where are the children?" "I sent them to mother"s." (Cronin) 11. Philip heard a man"s voice talking quickly, but soothingljr, over the phone. (/. Shaw)12. Presently Rex was on his two miles" walk to Offendene. (Eliot) 13. That early morning he had already done a good two hours" work. (Galsworthy) 14. Bowen sat on the veranda of Buckmaster"s house. (Amis) 15. Crime is the product of a country"s social order. (Cronin) 16. I spotted the bride"s father"s uncle"s silk hat on the seat of a straight chair across the room. (Salinger) 17. I spent Christmas at my aunt Emily"s. (Braine) 18. We took some bread and cheese with us and got some goat"s milk up there on the pasture. (Voynich) 19. He was still thinking of next morning"s papers. (Snow) 20. Why, for God"s sake, why must we go through all this hell? (Saroyan) 21. A man stepped out from a tobacconist"s and waved to them, and the car slid to the kerb and. stopped. (Greene) 22. A woman"s love is not worth anything until it has been cleaned of all romanticism. (Murdoch) 23. Her skin was as dry as a child"s with fever. (Greene)
Exercise 6. Put the noun in the genitive case. Explain the use of the genitive case.
1. Well, I"d rather be married to a saint that never saw my good looks than to a sinner who saw every other __. (woman) (Buck) 2. The breakfast table at __ was usually a very pleasant one, and was always presided over by Bella. (Mr. Boffin) (Dickens) 3. "I think __ friendships are much deeper than __," Mrs. Thompson said, (men, women) (Braine) 4. That night he had chosen a basement bar a __ throw from Scotland Yard... (stone) (Hansford Johnson) 5. As he passed through the __ room he saw an evening paper spread out conspicuously on the desk of the __ nephew. (clerks, director) (Greene) 6. But I suppose that need not prevent us from quarrelling to our __ content in future, (heart) (Voynich) 7. With one cold glance could she send me back into childhood with all a lonely __ terrors and shames, (child) (Lindsay) 8. I will even go farther, if you like, and admit, for __ sake and for __ sake, that the identity of Lady Glyde, as a living person, is a proved fact to Miss Hal combe "and yourself, (courtesy, argument) (Collins) 9. He stopped to dinner that evening and much to - satisfaction made a favorable impression on her father. (Ruth) (London) 10. He said to her: "Look at my brother __ property." (James) (Galsworthy) 11. He had not been at __ for nearly two years. (Timothy) (Galsworthy) 12. Benson... was listening among the __ representatives cocking his head on one side, (workers) (Lindsay) 13. He had never thought that a mere __ hand could be sweetly soft, (woman) (London) 14. But he was daunted the next moment by his own and __ insignificance. (Milly) (Greene) 15. But by that time the bride was near the end of the first _ journey towards Florence, (day) (Dickens) 16....he too wished she had remained at home, as did most of the __ families, (congressmen) (Stone) 17. You need a good __ sleep, (night) (Shaw) 18. Haven"t you noticed that other __ bread-and-butter is always much nicer than your own? Robert is like that. He always prefers __ fireside, (people, somebody else) (Maugham) 19. The __ wives were more expensively dressed than the Civil __, and in general more spectacular, (politicians, servants) (Snow) 20. One evening, on the way to the __, I saw Irwing sitting on the steps of his house, (grocer) (Saroyan) 21. I cannot be blamed for all my __ doings, (kin) (Lindsay)
Exercise 7. Translate into English, using a noun in the genitive case where possible.
1. Давид провел две недели в Ярмуте у мистера Пеготти. 2. Уезжая в Ярмут, мальчик ничего не знал о предполагаемом (intended) браке своей матери. 3. После путешествия, которое длилось несколько часов, Пеготти с Давидом прибыли в Ярмут. 4. Приближаясь к дому мистера Пеготти, Давид увидел детскую фигурку, стоявшую на пороге. 5. Дядя Хэма и Эмили усыновил их, когда они были детьми. 6. Пеготти с гордостью говорила о доброте своего брата. 7. Двухнедельное пребывание в Ярмуте доставило Давиду большое удовольствие. 8. В присутствии мужа миссис Копперфильд боялась приласкать своего сына. 9. После минутной нерешительности Давид подошел к миссис Копперфильд и поцеловал ее. 10. После смерти жены мистер Мердстон послал Давида в Лондон, где мальчик должен был работать в торговом доме (warehouse) Мердстона и Гринби.
THE USE OF ARTICLES
Exercise 1. Change the nouns into the plural. Use some (any) where necessary and make the other necessary changes.
1. A kitten likes to play. 2. A violet does not smell so sweet as a lily of the valley. 3. Have you bought an apple for your child? 4. Here is a letter to be posted. 5. He ate a spoonful of broth and a sandwich. 6. I must buy a postcard. 7. She did not bring me a magazine, she brought me a newspaper. 8. She made a step towards him. 9. In the bedroom a candle was burning. 10. Did she ever lend you a book?
Exercise 2. Insert articles where necessary. (Articles with class nouns.)
1. Not __ word was spoken in __ parlour. (Caldwelt) 2. __ room itself was filling up, so was __ staircase. (Snow) 3. I think that __ man"s life is worth saving, whoever it belongs to. (Shaw) 4. Though __ earth was cold and wet, __ sky was clear and __ sun rose bright and beautiful. (Dickens) 5. He made them provide not one car, but half __ dozen. (Snow) 6.. __ compass was invented in ancient China. 7. Not __ word was spoken, not __ sound was made. (Dickens) 8. __ sky outside __ window was already dark, __ secretaries had gone home, all was quiet. (Snow) 9. Edward remained __ week at __ cottage. (Austen) 10. I tell you, he"s as brave as __ man can reasonably be. (Snow) 11. After that they would meet, perhaps, two or three times __ year. (Galsworthy) 12. Dinny looked up at __ house; and suddenly saw __ face in __ window of __ dining-room. (Galsxnorthy) 13. You know I never cared for __ drama. 14. "It is not __ large house," I said. "We don"t want __ large house." (Jerome K. Jercme) 15. He looks older than he is, as __ dark men often do. (Dickens) 16. Roger looked at him and, without __. word, took out his wallet and gave him __ ten-shilling note. (Snow) 17. As __ man sows, so shall he reap. 18. This morning __ tobacconist was at his door. (Bennett) 19. It was Sunday afternoon, and __ sun, which had teen shining now for several hours, was beginning to warm __ earth. (Murdoch) 20. I have __ long story to tell you. Come and sit down on __ sofa and let us have __ comfortable chat. (Marryat) 21. __ arm in __ arm, they walked toward home. (/. Shaw)22. It was __ cottage built like __ mansion, having __ central hall with __ wooden gallery running round it, and __ rooms no bigger than __ closets. (Hardy) 23. And what __ beautiful moth there is over there on-----wall. (Murdoch) 24. She had __ key of her own. (Conan Doyle) 25. He was __ short, plump man with __ very white face and __ very white hands. It was rumoured in London that he powdered them like __ woman. (Greene) 26. __ old couldn"t help __ young... (Galsworthy) 27. To him she would always be __ loveliest woman in __ world. (Maugham) 28. __ strongest have their hours of depression. (Dreiser) 29. Her aunt, in __ straw hat so broad that it covered her to __ very edges of her shoulders, was standing below with two gardeners behind her. (Galsworthy) 30. 1 am afraid I addressed __ wrong person. (Collins) 31. They must have had very fair notions of __ artistic and __ beautiful. (Jerome K. Jerome) 32. __ rich think they can buy anything. (Snow) 33. __ room has three doors; one on __ same side as __ fireplace, near - corner, leading to __ best bedroom. (Shaw) 34. My thousand __ year is not merely. __. matter of dirty banknotes and jaundicedguineas... but, it may be, health to __ drooping, strength to __ weak, consolation to __ sad. (Ch. Bronte) 35. Thank you, Stephen: I knew you would give me __ right advice. (Shaw) 36. Sometimes... visitors rang __ wrong bell. (Bennett) 37. My family came from hereabouts some generations back. I just wanted to have - look at __ place, and ask you __ question or two. (Galsworthy) 38. __ woman will only be "the equal of __ man when she earns her living in __ same way that he does. (Maugham) 39. He arrived half __ hour before dinner time, and went up to __ schoolroom at __ top of __ house, to see __ children. (Galsworthy) 40. You will see him __ steady character yet. I am sure of it. There is something in. __ very expression of his face that tells me so. (Marryat) 41. Far away in __ little street there is __ poor house. One of __ windows is open and through it I can see __ woman seated at __ table. She is __ seamstress. (Wilde) 42. _ man who entered was short and broad. He had black hair, and was wearing __ grey flannel trousers with __ red woollen shirt, open at __ neck, whose collar he carried outside __ lapels of his dark tweed jacket. (Clark) 43. Believe me, when __ woman really makes up her mind to marry __ man nothing on God"s earth can save him. (Maugham) 44. I stopped,., still uncertain of myself and whether I was saying. __ right thing. (Du Maurier) 45, Then it was night and he was awake, standing in __ street, looking up at __ dark windows of __ place where he lived. __ front door was locked and there was no one in __ house. (Saroyan) 46. I believe I can tell __ very.moment I began to love him. (Galsworthy) 47. We are told that __ heart of __ man is deceitful above all __ things, and desperately wicked. (Shaw) 48. "I must do it," said Adam; "it"s __ right thing." (Eliot) 49. Mr. Boythorn lived in __ pretty house with __ lawn in front, __ bright flower garden at __ side and __ kitchen-garden in __ rear, enclosed with __ wall. __ house was __ real old house. (Dickens) 50 __ bartender was __ pale little man in __ vest and apron, with __ pale, hairy arms and __ long, nervous nose. (/. Shaw)51. __ face to __.face, he was as warm and easy-natured as he had ever been. (Snow) 52. 1 had not yet learnt how contradictory is human nature; I did not know how much pose there is in __ sincere, how much baseness in _ noble, or how much goodness in __ reprobate. 10 (Maugham) 53. During __ country house parties one day is very like another. __ men put on __ same kind of variegated tie, eat __ same breakfast, tap __ same barometer, smoke __ same pipes and kill __ same birds. (Galsworthy) 54. Almost at. very moment when r,he had returned Aileen had appeared. (Dreiser) 55. __ old man quitted __ house secretly at __ same hour as before. (Dickens) 56. We are told that __ wicked shall be punished. (Shaw) 57. __ arm in __ arm we walked on, sometimes stumbling over __ hump of earth or catching our feet in __ rabbit-holes. (Hansford lohnson) 58. Clare was __ most vivid member of __ family. She had dark fine shingled hair and __ pale expressive face, of which __ lips were slightly brightened. __ eyes were brown, with __ straight and eager glance, __ brow low and very white. Her expression was old for __ girl of twenty, being calm and yet adventurous. (Galsworthy) 59. When I was __ child my mother used to make __ cakes and send me out with them as __ presents to __ neighbours. And. __ neighbours would give us __ presents too, and not only at Christmas time. (Murdoch) 60. I wrote to __ Managing Editor that this was __ wrong moment to change their correspondent. (Greene)
И. П. Крылова Е. М. Гордон
Грамматика
УДК 802.0(075.8)
ББК 81.2 Англ-2
Крылова И. П., Гордон Е. М.
К85 Грамматика современного английского языка: Учебник для ин-тов и фак. иностр. яз. - 9-е изд. - М.: Книжный дом «Университет»: Высшая школа, 2003. - 448 с. - На англ. яз.
ISBN 5-8013-0168-2 (Книжный дом «Университет»)
ISBN 5-06-004669-9 (Высшая школа)
Учебник предназначен для студентов тех институтов и факультетов иностранных языков, в которых курс практической грамматики читается на английском языке. Учебник содержит развернутое описание частей речи, краткие сведения о структуре предложения. Последовательно проводится стиллистическая дифференциация грамматических явлений.
Тщательный подбор иллюстративных примеров, которые содержат общеупотребительную лексику, но вместе с тем являются образцами хорошего литературного языка, обеспечивают повышение общего уровня владения языком.
УДК 802.0(075.8)
ББК 81.2 Англ-2
ISBN 5-8013-0168-2
(Книжный дом «Университет»)
ISBN 5-06-004669-9
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
"A Grammar of Present-Day English" - учебник, предназначенный для студентов институтов иностранных языков, а также факультетов иностранных языков педагогических институтов и филологических факультетов университетов. Это означает, что учебник рассчитан на студентов, овладевших грамматическим материалом, предусмотренным программой средней школы, т. е. знакомых с основными понятиями морфологии и синтаксиса. Учебник представляет собой практический курс грамматики английского языка. Практическая направленность учебника определяет принципы, положенные в его основу:
2. В учебнике описываются грамматические нормы английского языка, иными словами, объясняются типичные явления, которые и должны усваиваться студентами. В ряде случаев упоминаются также и отклонения от норм, если они необходимы студентам для правильного понимания читаемой литературы, но при этом всегда делается специальная оговорка. Редкие отклонения от норм вообще не включены в учебник.
4. Один из ведущих принципов, положенных в основу учебника, заключается в том, что студенты должны изучать хорошие образцы английского языка. Это относится как к формулированию правил, так
и к примерам, которые их иллюстрируют. Поэтому особое внимание уделялось подбору иллюстративного материала. Авторы стремились к тому, чтобы примеры содержали употребительную лексику и одновременно оставались бы хорошими образцами английского языка и чтобы учебник, таким образом, помогал студентам совершенствовать их зна - ния. Следует заметить, что количество примеров варьируется в учебнике в зависимости от употребительности того или иного грамматического явления и от объема раздела, который он иллюстрирует.
Кроме того, в учебник включены наиболее употребительные устой-
чивые сочетания (set phrases) и готовые фразы (stereotyped phrases),
возникшие на основе описанных грамматических моделей.
5. В учебнике проводится стилистическая дифференциация грамматических явлений, в частности особая оговорка делается в отноше - нии явлений, типичных только для книжной речи или носящих сугубо разговорный характер. Грамматические модели, которые в стилистическом отношении являются нейтральными, в специальных пояснениях, разумеется, не нуждаются.
6. В учебнике не проводится систематического сопоставления грамматических явлений английского языка с соответствующими яв - лениями в русском языке. Авторы, однако, прибегают к сравнениям с русским языком там, где это необходимо для понимания того или иного явления в английском языке.
Переводы на русский язык отдельных предложений, оборотов, терминов даются лишь там, где возникает опасение, что английский материал будет труден для понимания.
В учебнике отражены следующие признаки частей речи: 1) их семантика, 2) грамматические категории (для изменяемых частей речи),
3) их функции в предложении. Эти критерии, служащие для выделения частей речи в языке, положены в основу описания каждой отдельной части речи, и этот принцип проводится в учебнике систематиче - ски.
Хотя словообразование и сочетаемость с другими частями речи также являются существенными критериями выделения частей речи в языке, авторы не нашли нужным включать эти разделы в учебник. В институтах и на факультетах иностранных языков словообразование обычно входит в курс лексикологии, и включение его в грамматику создало бы ненужное дублирование курсов.
Что касается сочетаемости частей речи, то она фактически отражена в учебнике полностью при описании их синтаксических функций в предложении, и для практического овладения материалом выделение
ее в особый раздел представляется излишним.
Согласно общепризнанной точке зрения, важнейшей частью речи является глагол, который представляет собой ядро предложения. В практическом плане именно употребление глагольных форм представляет для изучающих английский язык наибольшие трудности. Поэтому глаголу в учебнике уделяется самое значительное место, и именно с глагола начинается рассмотрение всех частей речи.
Другим чрезвычайно важным в практическом отношении разделом грамматики является употребление артиклей. Этой теме в учебнике также отводится значительное место.
Стремясь к тому, чтобы учебник максимально способствовал именно практическому овладению грамматикой, авторы по-новому освещают некоторые грамматические явления или вносят дополнения и уточнения к традиционным объяснениям.
Это относится, в первую очередь, к разделам, посвященным глаголу. В учебнике вводится понятие структурной и лексической обусловленности употребления некоторых глагольных форм (см. "Verbs", §8), и преподавателям следует уделять этому вопросу особое внимание. Важную роль в учебнике играет выделение структурных моделей, типичных для употребления некоторых глагольных форм. По-новому освещается употребление формы Present Perfect и форм, служащих для отнесения действия к будущему. Введены дополнительные объяснения к употреблению форм Past Continuous, Past Perfect, Present Perfect Continuous и Past Perfect Continuous, а также к правилам согласования времен и употребления страдательного залога. По возможности просто, без излишней терминологической перегруженности, трактуются формы выражения нереальности, Они тесно связаны с употреблением модальных глаголов, объяснение которых предшествует описанию форм нереальности. Изменения внесены также в описание неличных форм глагола: их специфика выявляется лишь при сопоставлении с предикативными формами, и этому вопросу уделяется много внимания. Детально описывается значение простой формы, объясняются причины относительно редкого употребления аналитических форм. Внесены изменения и в описание функций неличных форм глагола в предложении. Наиболее существенное изменение касается герундия и причастия I, которые по традиции обычно рассматриваются как две различные формы, хотя многие грамматисты указывают, что они фактически не разграничимы. В предлагаемом учебнике они трактуются, вслед за некоторыми лингвистами, как единая форма - the ing-form, способная выполнять в предложении, подобно инфинитиву, самые разнообразные функции. Для практического овладения материалом такая интерпретация, как показывает опыт, оказывается более эффективной. Авторы рекомендуют изучать употребление инфинитива и инговой формы параллельно по функциям. Например, изучая инфинитив в функции подлежащего, целесообразно одновременно читать материал об инговой форме в той же функции, а также параграфы, в которых эти две функции сравниваются (§§ 181, 209 и 235). Затем следует переходить к другой функции. На этой сравнительной основе построены упражнения в «Сборнике упражнений по грамматике английского языка» И. П. Крыловой. Вопрос раз-
граничения герундия и причастия I представляет интерес скорее для изучающих курс теоретической грамматики английского языка.
По-новому освещается в учебнике также употребление артиклей. Раздел «Краткие сведения о структуре предложения» не претендует
на полное описание синтаксической структуры английского языка, а является скорее справочным материалом, которым следует пользо - ваться в том случае, если, работая над основными главами, студенты сталкиваются с трудностями в определении синтаксических функций тех или иных классов слов. Кроме того, в учебнике используются не совсем традиционные названия некоторых синтаксических функций, объяснение которым также можно найти в этом разделе.
В учебнике имеется приложение, которое содержит список неправильных глаголов и предметный указатель.
PARTS OF SPEECH IN ENGLISH
The words of every language fall into classes which are called parts of speech. Each part of speech has characteristics of its own. Parts of speech differ from each other in meaning, form and function.
Different parts of speech have different lexical meanings. For example, verbs are words denoting processes (to work, to live); nouns are names of objects (table, boy); adjectives are words expressing characteristics (good, bad), etc.
Some parts of speech have different grammatical categories, e.g. verbs have the categories of mood, tense, aspect, phase, voice, person and number; nouns have the categories of number and case; adjectives have degrees of comparison, etc.
Other parts of speech are invariable, they have only one form. Here belong such parts of speech as prepositions and conjunctions.
Parts of speech also differ from each other in their syntactic functions. For example, verbs have the function of the predicate in the sentence, nouns are often used as the subject or the object of the sentence, adjectives serve as attributes or predicatives; adverbs are generally adverbial modifiers, etc.
These characteristic features will be described in detail when each part of speech is considered individually.
In addition, all words may be divided into two main groups: notional and structural.
Notional words have distinct lexical meanings and perform independent syntactic functions in the sentence: they serve either as primary or secondary parts of the sentence. To this group belong the following parts of speech: verbs, nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns and adverbs.
Structural words differ from notional words semantically: their lexical meaning is of a more general character than that of notional words (e.g. in, and, even). Moreover, they are sometimes altogether devoid of it (e.g. the articles the and a, the conjunction that, the preposition of, e t c .) . Structural words do not perform
any independent syntactic function in the sentence but serve either to express various relations between words in a sentence (e.g. the trees in the garden, Tom and Joe, etc.) or to specify the meaning of a word (e.g. the book, a book, etc.). The following parts of speech are to be treated as structural words: articles, prepositions and conjunctions.
The division of words into notional and structural is connected with certain difficulties. For example, verbs, which, on the whole, are to be treated as notional words, include certain words which serve as structural elements (e.g. modal verbs), some other verbs may function either as notional words or as structural words (e.g. to look is a notional verb in He looked at me and a structural word - a link-verb - in He looked tired; the verb to have is a notional verb in I have a car and a structural word - a modal verb - in I had to do it). Pronouns may be quoted as another example since, on the one hand, they have, like all notional words, independent syntactic functions in the sentence but, on the other hand, they are devoid of distinct lexical meaning.
§ 1. According to content, verbs can be described as words denoting actions, the term "actions" embracing the meaning of activity (e.g. to walk, to speak, to play, to study), process (e.g. to sleep, to wait, to live), state (e.g. to be, to like, to know), relation (e.g. to consist, to resemble, to lack) and the like.
According to form, verbs can be described as words that have certain grammatical features that are not shared by other parts of speech, e.g. they have the categories of tense, aspect, voice, etc.
According to function, verbs can be defined as words making up the predicate of the sentence.
§ 2. Verbs can be classified under different heads.
1) According to their meaning verbs can be divided into two groups - terminative and durative verbs.
Terminative verbs imply a limit beyond which the action can - not continue. To put it differently, they have a final aim in view, e.g. to open, to close, to bring, to recognize, to refuse, to break.
With the verb to open, for example, that means that after opening the door it is impossible to go on with the action as the door is al - ready open.
Durative verbs do not imply any such limit, and the action can go on indefinitely, e.g. to carry, to live, to speak, to know, to sit, to play.
But as most verbs in English are polysemantic they may be terminative in one meaning and durative in another. For example, to see may have the terminative meaning "увидеть" and the durative meaning "видеть"; to know may denote "знать" and "узнатьThe meaning of the verb becomes clear from the context. Compare: I saw him at once and I saw his face quite clearly. As will be seen, the distinction between terminative and durative verbs is of great importance as it affects the use of certain tense -aspect-phase forms.
2) According to their relation to the continuous form, English verbs fall into two groups: dynamic verbs, i.e. verbs which admit of the continuous form (a) and stative verbs, i.e. verbs which do not admit of the continuous form (b).
e.g. a) We were eating dinner when he called.
You"ll find Mother in the kitchen. She is making a cake, b) I understand what you mean.
I don"t see him in the crowd.
The distinction between dynamic, and stative verbs is funda - mental in English grammar, and it is also reflected in a number of other ways than in the continuous form.
It is normal for verbs to be dynamic, and even the minority that are almost always stative can be given a dynamic use on occasion.
The following is the list of most commonly used stative verbs:
a) verbs denoting physical perceptions: to hear, to notice, to see;
b) verbs denoting emotions: to adore, to care for, to detest, to dislike, to hate, to like, to love, to respect;
c) verbs denoting wish: to desire, to want, to wish;
d) verbs denoting mental processes: to admire (= to be of high opinion), to appreciate, to assume, to believe (= to consider), to con sider (= to regard), to doubt, to expect (= to suppose), to feel (= to consider), to imagine, to know, to mind (= to object), to perceive, to presume, to recall, to recognize, to recollect, to regard, to remember, to suppose, to think (= to consider), to trust, to understand;
e) relational verbs: to apply, to be, to belong, to concern, to consist, to contain, to depend, to deserve, to differ, to equal, to fit, to have, to hold (= to contain), to include, to involve, to lack, to matter, to need, to owe, to own, to possess, to remain, to require, to resemble, to result, to signify, to suffice;
f) some other verbs: to agree, to allow, to appear (= to seem),
to astonish, to claim, to consent, to displease, to envy, to fail to do, to feel (intr) l , to find, to forbid, to forgive, to intend, to interest, to keep doing, to manage to do, to mean, to object, to please,
to prefer, to prevent, to puzzle, to realize, to refuse, to remind, to satisfy, to seem, to smell (intr), 1 to sound (intr), 1 to succeed, to suit, to surprise, to taste (intr), 1 to tend, to value.
1 As in: The surface feels rough. The song sounds nice. The soup tastes (smells) nice.
3) English verbs are also classified according to the type of object they take. Verbs that do not require any object are called intransitive.
e.g. We walked across the fields.
Nobody knew where the old man lived.
Verbs that require some kind of object to complete their meaning are called transitive. The objects transitive verbs take may be direct (a), indirect (b) or prepositional (c).
e.g. a) I swear I"m telling the truth.
b) His mother never gave him advice.
c) Now let"s talk of something sensible.
Polysemantic verbs may be transitive in one meaning and intransitive in another.
e.g. I didn"t know where to find him as he had changed his address. I was glad to see that he had not changed at all.
He ran uphill past a block of houses. She ran the shop quite competently.
§ 3. According to their meaning and function in the sentence English verbs are classified into notional and structural ones.
Notional verbs always have a lexical meaning of their own and can have an independent syntactic function in the sentence.
e.g. During the war he lived in London.
When a verb is used as a structural word, it may either pre - serve or lose its lexical meaning. But even if it has a lexical meaning of its own, the latter is of a specific character and the verb cannot have an independent syntactic function in the sentence - it is always closely connected with some other word. Here belong modal verbs and link-verbs.
A modal verb is always accompanied by an infinitive - together they form a modal predicate.
e.g. The party is at eight. You must dress suitably for it. I couldn"t do anything under the circumstances.
A link-verb is followed by a predicative; together they form a nominal predicate.
e.g. He was a middle-aged man.
It became very hot by noon.
The hotel remained empty all through the winter. The cottage seemed deserted.
Sometimes a verb is entirely devoid of lexical meaning and is then called an auxiliary verb. Combined with a notional verb it serves to build up analytical forms.
e.g. We had arranged to meet in the usual place. Do you know why he said that?
The young man was sitting at the table alone.
Polysemantic verbs may be notional as well as structural words.
e.g. He is married and has three children (a notional verb used in the meaning "to possess").
I had to reconsider my position (a structural word: a modal verb denoting obligation, part of a modal predicate).
"It has happened now," he said, "so there"s nothing to do"
(a structural word: an auxiliary verb which serves to build up an analytical form).
He looked at me, waiting for the next words (notional verb meaning "glanced").
He looked quite happy (a structural word: a link-verb meaning "seemed").
§ 4. English verbs are characterized by a great variety of forms which can be divided into two main groups according to the function they perform in the sentence: the finite forms and the non-fi- nite forms.
The finite forms have the function of the predicate in the sentence and may also be called the predicative forms.
The non-finite or non-predicative forms can have various other functions; they are used as the predicate of the sentence only by way of exception. These forms are often called the verbals (see "Verbs", §§ 163-254).
The finite forms of the verb have the following grammatical categories:
1) Person and Number. These categories of the verb serve to show the connection between the subject and the predicate of the
sentence - the subject agrees with the predicate in person and number. We find three persons (the first, the second, and the third) and two numbers (the singular and the plural) in finite verbs (see the formation of finite forms, "Verbs", §§ 9, 11, 15, 17, 22, 25, 29, 33, 38, 40, 43, 45).
2) Tense, Aspect and Phase (see "Verbs", § 7).
3) Voice (see "Verbs", §§ 61-63).
4) Mood (see "Verbs", §§ 122-125).
§ 5. The forms that serve to express the above mentioned grammatical categories may be built up in different ways.
We find three basic forms that serve as a foundation for building up all the other forms of the English verb. These forms are: 1) the plain verb stem which is also often referred to as the infinitive without the particle to, 2) the Past Indefinite, and 3) the participle.
According to the way of forming the Past Indefinite and the participle, all verbs can be divided into two classes: regular and irregular verbs.
With regular verbs, the Past Indefinite and the participle are formed by adding the suffix -ed. It is pronounced [d] after vowels and voiced consonants (e.g. played, answered, opened, closed), [t] after voiceless consonants (e.g. looked, passed), and after verbs ending in [t] or [d] (e.g. wanted, wasted, ended, landed).
1) Verbs ending in -y preceded by a consonant change the -y into -led (e.g. study - studied, envy - envied). But if the -y is preceded by a vowel, it remains unchanged (e.g. play - played, stay - stayed).
2) A final consonant is doubled if it is preceded by a short stressed vowel or if a verb ends in a stressed -er (-ur) (e.g. stop - stopped, admit - admitted, occur - occurred, prefer - preferred). But if the preceding vowel is long or unstressed, the final consonant remains single (e.g. limit - limited, perform - performed, conquer - conquered, appear - appeared).
3) A final -l is always doubled in British English (e.g. travel - travelled, quarrel - quarrelled).
All other verbs should be regarded as irregular in modern English. They are a miscellaneous group comprising various patterns
(e.g. sing - sang - sung, write - wrote - written, send - sent - sent, teach - taught - taught, etc.)- Some verbs have a regular form by the side of an irregular one (e.g. learn - learnt
Learnt and also learn - learned - learned). A number of verbs remain unchanged (e.g. cut - cut - cut, hit - hit - hit). Two verbs take their forms from different roots and are called suppletive systems. They are the verbs to be and to go. (For a complete list of irregular verbs see Appendix.)
§ 6. The forms of the verb which are built up with the help of the above described basic forms may be of two different kinds - synthetic or analytical.
Synthetic forms are built up by a change in the word itself: by means of suffixes (e.g. I work, he works, we worked), by means of vowel change (e.g. I find, I found), and sometimes by combining both means (e.g. I think, I thought).
Analytical forms consist of two components, e.g. He has worked hard. The first component is an auxiliary verb which has no lexical meaning - it expresses only grammatical meaning. The second component is a notional verb which is the bearer of lexical meaning ("носитель лексического значения"). The auxiliary verb shows that has worked is the third person singular, the Indicative Mood, the Active Voice. But the specific meaning of this particu - lar form, that of the Present Perfect, results only from the combi - nation of both components.
In the analytical form was written (as in: The letter was written yesterday), written is the bearer of lexical meaning; was shows that we are dealing with the third person singular, the Indicative Mood, the Past Indefinite, But again the specific grammatical meaning of this particular form, that of the Passive Voice, is expressed by the whole combination of the auxiliary and the notional verb.
Thus an analytical form consists of two words - a structural word and a notional word - which form a very close, inseparable unit. It functions in English as the form of a single word by the side of synthetic forms (e.g. he works, he has worked, he worked, he was working, he had worked, etc.).
The auxiliary verb itself may be an analytical form (e.g. He has been working. He will be working. The letter has been written, etc.). Such forms may be called complex analytical forms.
FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB
Tense, Aspect and Phase
§ 7. Tense is the form of the verb which indicates the time of the action. The category of tense in English is made up by a set of forms opposed to each other in referring the event or state de - scribed to the present, past or future.
Aspect is the form of the verb which serves to express the manner in which the action is regarded. There are two opposing sets of aspect forms in English - the Continuous forms and the Non-Continuous (Indefinite) forms. The Non-Continuous (Indefinite) forms have a very broad meaning, they have no specialized aspect characteristics of their own and merely represent an action as occurring. Conversely, the Continuous forms have a clear -cut aspect characteristic, which is to represent an action in its tempo - rary development. The Continuous forms have a number of other concomitant meanings or overtones that go with the basic meaning of process and duration. They are incompletion, simultaneity, vividness of description, emotional colouring and emphasis.
Besides, there are the Perfect forms which are opposed to the Non-Perfect forms. The latter have no definite grammatical characteristics. The grammatical meaning of the Perfect forms is to express retrospectiveness, which consists of two elements - priority and relevance. In some grammars this category has been given the name phase.
The three grammatical categories of the English verb are so closely merged together that it is impossible to treat them sepa - rately.
We find the following finite forms in English: the Present Indefinite, the Present Continuous, the Present Perfect, the Present Perfect Continuous, the Past Indefinite, the Past Continuous, the Past Perfect, the Past Perfect Continuous, the Future Indefinite, the Future Continuous, the Future Perfect, the Future Indefinite - in-the-Past, the Future Continuous-in-the-Past, and the Future Perfect-in-the-Past.
§ 8. 1) In discussing the use of English finite forms it is necessary to understand that in most cases the choice is free: the form is chosen in accordance with the meaning the speaker wishes to
convey and does not depend on the structure of the sentence, e.g.
He knows English. He knew English. He will know English.
In certain cases, however, the choice of the form is determined by the structure of the sentence, usually the kind of clause in which it is used. For example, the use of t he Present Indefinite with reference to the future in a clause of time or condition (a), or the use of a finite form under the rules of the sequence of tenses (b).
e.g. a) When you feel hungry, I"ll bring you some sandwiches. If I want anything I"ll call you up.
b) She knew that Henry would be waiting for her. I wondered if he had kept his promise.
In such cases we have the structurally dependent use of finite forms.
In still other cases the choice of the finite form in a sub - ordinate clause is determined not so much by the kind of clause as by the lexical character of the head-word, i.e. the word in the principal clause which the subordinate clause modifies or refers to. For example, in object clauses subordinated to the verbs to see to, to take care or to make sure the future forms are not used.
e.g. He"ll take care that she comes in time.
She saw to it that they had plenty of food in the house.
In such cases we have the lexically-dependent use of finite forms.
2) Closely connected with the above notion is the absolute and relative use of finite forms. The forms may refer an action direct - ly to the present, past or future time. We are dealing in this case with the absolute use of finite forms, which, as a rule, is structur - ally independent.
But in certain types of clauses the verb form of the sub - ordinate clause only shows whether the action of the clause is si - multaneous with that of the principal clause, precedes it or follows it. (These relations may be termed as simultaneity, priority and posteriority respectively.) In this case we are dealing with the relative use of finite forms. It is usually structurally dependent (see, for example, the rules of the sequence of tenses).
e.g. He discovered that his wife knew London far better than he did. He knew that she had read his thoughts.
He thought that he would hate the place.
3) Last but not least, students of English should differentiate between present-time contexts and past-time contexts.
In present-time contexts, i.e. in conversations, letters, newspaper and radio reports, lectures and scientific prose, the situation is viewed from the moment of speaking. (The moment of speaking is to be understood as present from the speaker"s point of view but not as the present moment.) Any finite form that is re quired by the sense can be used in present-time contexts. The only reservation should be made for the Past Perfect and the Past Perfect Continuous and all the Future-in-the-Past forms which are, in presenttime contexts, mainly found in reported speech or thought.
In past-time contexts, i.e. in narration, the situation is viewed from a past moment. Hence, the use of finite forms is restricted only to past forms including the Future-in-the-Past.
The Present Indefinite
§ 9. The Present Indefinite is formed from the plain stem of the verb. In the third person singular it has the suffix -s/-es which is pronounced after voiceless consonants (e.g. looks, puts), and after sibilants (e.g. closes, places, teaches, wishes, judges).
In writing the following spelling rules should be observed:
a) Verbs ending in -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -tch, x and -z take the suffix -es (e.g. passes, pushes, watches). The suffix -es is also added to verbs ending in о preceded by a consonant (e.g. goes).
b) Verbs ending in -y with a preceding consonant change the -y into -ies (e.g. study - studies, try - tries, fly - flies). But if the
У is preceded by a vowel, the suffix -s is added (e.g. play - plays, stay - stays).
The affirmative form of the Present Indefinite is a synthetic form (e.g. I work, he works, etc.). But the interrogative and negative forms are built up analytically, by means of the auxiliary verb do in the Present Indefinite and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to (e.g. Do you work? Does he work? I do not
work. He does not work, etc.). In spoken English the contracted negative forms don"t and doesn"t should be used.
The Present Indefinite may have a special affirmative form which is used for emphasis. This emphatic form is built up analytically, by means of the Present Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to do followed by the infinitive of the notional verb without the par - ticle to. The auxiliary verb is heavily stressed in this case (e.g. I "do insist on it. He "does insist on it).
§ 10. The Present Indefinite is used in the following cases:
1) When it serves to express recurrent (a) or permanent (b) actions in the present.
a) We find recurrent actions with terminative verbs. They are, as a matter of fact, point (instantaneous) actions repeated a num - ber of times. This series of recurrent actions may include or ex - clude the actual moment of speaking.
This use of the Present Indefinite is often associated with such adverbial modifiers of frequency as often, seldom, sometimes, occasionally, always, never, ever, every year (week, month, day), usual - ly, once {twice, three times) a year, daily, on Sundays (Mondays, etc.) and the like. But it may also be found without any indica - tions of time.
e.g. He wakes up around six o"clock and has a cup of coffee. He doesn"t usually ring up early in the morning.
"Do you often come to these parties?" inquired Jordan of the girl beside her.
The charwoman comes in daily.
b) We find permanent actions with durative verbs. They generally indicate continuous, uninterrupted processes which naturally include the present moment. Such actions give a general character - istic to the person or thing denoted by the subject. Time indica - tions are not obligatory in this case.
e.g. Her son works near here and so, after her husband"s death, she came down to live here and he boards with her.
That old man gave me a surprise. He"s seventy-five, and he doesn"t walk, he runs.
I teach English and History at a college, and I live with my parents.
I hate authority. It spoils the relations between parent and child.
Like all young men, he sleeps like a log.
As is seen from the above examples, the difference between the two main uses of the Present Indefinite rests on the difference in the lexical character of the verb. In many cases, however, owing to the context or situation, the difference appears blurred and it becomes difficult to define the lexical character of the verb. In other words, we are dealing with marginal cases in this instance - a permanent characteristic is given through recurrent actions.
e.g. I always talk too much when I"m nervous.
I sometimes play the piano for five hours a day. He usually walks to the corner with Phil. Edith always gets away with things.
Note. The Present Indefinite is often said to express a general statement or a universal truth. In this case it also denotes either a recurrent action or a perma - nent process and thus it does not differ in principle from the two above described uses of the Present Indefinite.
e.g. Domestic animals return to their homes. Romance only dies with life.
Still waters run deep, (a proverb)
A mother"s love means devotion, unselfishness, sacrifice.
2) When it is used to express a succession of point actions taking place at the time of speaking. In this meaning it is used in stage directions or by radio and TV commentators in describing sports events, public functions, etc. That means that this use of the Present Indefinite is stylistically restricted.
e.g. a) In stage directions:
b) In comments (here on a TV film about Chi -Chi, the giant panda, who returns home after her stay in the Moscow Zoo):
"Chi-Chi is in the pen. She walks over to the travelling box. Chi-Chi climbs on the rock. The crowd moves closer to Chi-Chi."
Сборник упражнений по грамматике английского языка (A Grammar of Present-day English Practice Book) под редакцией Крыловой И.П., Гордон Е.М. содержит тренировочные упражнения по курсу грамматики современного английского языка. Основное внимание уделяется глаголу и артиклю, т. к. эти темы представляют наибольшие трудности для изучающих английский язык.
Год выпуска: 2007
Издательство: Издательство «Книжный дом Университет»
Формат: PDF
Скачать
Размер: 13,5
Mb
Материалом для упражнений служат связные отрывки и отдельные предложения из произведений англо-американских писателей XIX-XX вв. Рекомендуется использовать в комплекте с «Грамматикой современного английского языка » И. П. Крыловой, Е. М. Гордон, а также в качестве самостоятельного пособия по грамматике для институтов и факультетов иностранных языков .
Сборник упражнений по грамматике английского языка / A Grammar of Present-day English Practice Book
Раскройте скобки, употребляя нужные временные и залоговые формы глаголов.
As soon as I (notice) that Maria (can) not pronounce her «s’s» I (make) an appointment and (see) a doctor. He (tell) me that she (grow) out of it naturally. I (not believe) that and, consequently, I (get) in touch with my old school friend who (live) near us. She still (work) as a speech therapist in a local hospital and she (take) the matter seriously and (send) me back to my doctor. Although a month or so (elapse), Maria’s lisp (grow) appreciably worse and that (help) to convince the doctor. Maria (see) by the consultant two months ago and (have) treatment for three weeks already. In my opinion she (make) progress and I (be) confident that in a month or so she (cure).
Тренировочные упражнения по курсу грамматики современного английского языка
Примеры.
Translate paying attention to the articles.
Переведите, обращая внимание на артикли.
1. Я люблю ходить в Музей им. Пушкина.
2. Памятник Маяковскому находится на площади Маяковского.
3. Вы знакомы с Ивановыми?
4. Он путешествовал в Центральной Америке.
5. Южно-Африканская Республика находится в Южной Африке.
6. Тихий океан отделяет Азию от Америки.
7. Миссисипи - крупнейшая река США.
8. Воркута - город на севере Европейской части России.
9. Я никогда не был в Театре на Таганке.
10. Летом мы путешествовали по Волге.
11. Мы остановились в гостинице «Россия».
12. Дисентис - небольшой город в Швейцарских Альпах.
13. Лето в Крыму жаркое.
14. Красная площадь - исторический центр Москвы.
15. Рейн начинается в Альпах.
16. Мы заблудились, потому что повернули не в ту сторону.
17. Театр им. Станиславского находится на Тверской улице.
Основное внимание уделяется глаголу и артиклю
Paraphrase the following using the verb in the brackets and an Infinitive construction.
Перефразируйте, используя инфинитивную конструкцию после глагола в скобках.
1. This part of land was under the sea (to believe).
2. Our ways never crossed (to happen).
3. His flat was a one-room affair (to turn out).
4. My fears were groundless (to prove).
5. Hardly anybody noticed his departure (to appear).
6. The truth will come out (to be sure).
7. The answer will not please him (to be likely).
8. The man’s mind was working with extraordinary freedom (to seem).
9. The events would be much commented on in the press (to be certain).
10. He is the best candidate for the post (to consider).
Учебник предназначен для студентов тех институтов и факультетов иностранных языков, в которых курс практической грамматики читается на английском языке. Учебник содержит развернутое описание частей речи, краткие сведения о структуре предложения. Последовательно проводится стиллистическая дифференциация грамматических явлений.
Тщательный подбор иллюстративных примеров, которые содержат общеупотребительную лексику, но вместе с тем являются образцами хорошего литературного языка, обеспечивают повышение общего уровня владения языком.
Рекомендуется использовать в комплекте со «Сборником упражнений по грамматике английского языка» И. П. Крыловой.
FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB.
Tense, Aspect and Phase.
Tense is the form of the verb which indicates the time of the action. The category of tense in English is made up by a set of forms opposed to each other in referring the event or state described to the present, past or future.
Aspect is the form of the verb which serves to express the manner in which the action is regarded. There are two opposing sets of aspect forms in English - the Continuous forms and the Non-Continuous (Indefinite) forms. The Non-Continuous (Indefinite) forms have a very broad meaning, they have no specialized aspect characteristics of their own and merely represent an action as occurring. Conversely, the Continuous forms have a clear-cut aspect characteristic, which is to represent an action in its temporary development. The Continuous forms have a number of other concomitant meanings or overtones that go with the basic meaning of process and duration. They are incompletion, simultaneity, vividness of description, emotional colouring and emphasis.
Besides, there are the Perfect forms which are opposed to the Non-Perfect forms. The latter have no definite grammatical characteristics. The grammatical meaning of the Perfect forms is to express retrospectiveness, which consists of two elements - priority and relevance. In some grammars this category has been given the name phase.
Бесплатно скачать электронную книгу в удобном формате, смотреть и читать:
Скачать книгу Грамматика английского языка, Крылова И.П., Гордон Е.М., 2003 - fileskachat.com, быстрое и бесплатное скачивание.
- Модальность в современном английском языке, Пособие по употреблению модальных глаголов и форм нереальности, Крылова И.П., Гордон Е.М., 2002 - Пособие предназначено для студентов и аспирантов факультетов иностранных языков и филологических факультетов университетов, а также для преподавателей английского языка. Цель … Книги по английскому языку
- Грамматика современного английского языка, Крылова И.П., Гордон Е.М., 2004 Книги по английскому языку
- Грамматика современного английского языка, Крылова И.П., Гордон Е.М., 1999 - Учебник предназначен для студентов тех институтов и факультетов иностранных языков, в которых курс практической грамматики читается на английском языке. Учебник … Книги по английскому языку
- Английский язык для начинающих, Крылова И.П., Краева И.А., Луканина С.А., Матрошилина Т.О., Гусева Н.Г., 2010 - Учебник включает базовый материал по фонетике, грамматике и лексике английского языка в соответствии с его современными нормами и с учетом … Книги по английскому языку
Следующие учебники и книги:
- Практический курс английского языка, 1 курс, Аракин В.Д., Селянина Л.И., Гинтовт К.П., Соколова М.А., 1998 Книги по английскому языку
- Практический курс английского языка, 1 курс, Аракин В.Д., 2012 - Серия учебников предназначена для студентов педагогических вузов и предполагает преемственность в изучении английского языка с I по V курс. Цель … Книги по английскому языку
- Английский язык для инженеров, Полякова Т.Ю., Синявская Е.В., Тынкова О.И., Улановская Э.С., 2004 - Учебник (5-е 2000 г.) написан в соответствии с программой по иностранным языкам для неязыковых вузов. Цель учебника обучение различным видам … Книги по английскому языку
- Английский язык для инженеров, Полякова Т.Ю., Синявская Е.В., Тынкова О.И., Улановская Э.С., 2007 - Учебник (6-е 2002 г.) написан в соответствии с программой по иностранным языкам для неязыковых вузов. Цель учебника обучение различным видам … Книги по английскому языку
Предыдущие статьи:
- - Один из лучших отечественных учебников по грамматике английского языка, написанных за последние 50 лет. Книга состоит из двух частей Морфология … Книги по английскому языку
- Английский для инженеров, Агабекян И.П., Коваленко П.К., 2002 - Учебное пособие для студентов технических вузов па первом п втором этапах обучения соответствует программе по английскому языку для вузов неязыковых … Книги по английскому языку
- Английский для технических вузов, Агабекян И.Л., Коваленко П.И. - Гласный звук i При произнесении краткого гласного звука i кончик языка находится у основания нижних зубов: оттенок русского звука и … Книги по английскому языку
- Английский для технических вузов, Агабекян И.Л., Коваленко П.И., 2004 - Английский для технических вузов, Агабекян ИЛ., Коваленко П.И., 2004. Учебное пособие соответствует программе по английскому языку для технических вузов. Первая … Книги по английскому языку